Social Constructionism Theory Of Crime And Media - 1253 Words

Early research in on crime and news media began in the 1900s focused from a sociological viewpoint on the newspapers’ role in influencing cities’ social structures, as well as determining the quality of information that was being produced. Park and Burgess (1921) {theory of human ecology} which, which was used to explain [X]. This sociological approach was adapted from Shaw and Mckay ({1929})to build on into their theory of social disorganization which was later incorporated into preliminary sociologist analysis of crime news reporting (Cadwell, 1932; ::?::). All of which was later refined and redefined by Davis’ 1952 study which incorporated {public opinion} polls to gauge the effect crime news had on newspaper readership. Which led to†¦show more content†¦The first amendment grants the press open access to trials and court records due to it’s ideological premise of a functioning â€Å"democratic society†(Gerald, 1991, p. 4) and that a pu blic and open court system has been a historic convention in the United States. Part of keeping keeping the system of government in check and is allowing public observation and constructive criticism (Burrows, 1982; ::?::).The additive that the press serves to keep the public informed about the workings of the democracy, has clashed with the court system and the sixth amendment, which ensures that defendants have fair and unbiased trials, regardless of the criminal accusations or public opinion (Gerald, 1991). There has in addition been some concern and protections put in place to protect the privacy and right of victims (Burrows, 1982; Gerald, 1991), especially in the cases of rape or juvenile victims. Thus, the first amendment guarantees the press access to information on governmental processes including criminal trials, arrest records and other public records regarding the criminal justice system (Burrows 1982; Gerald 1983; ::?:: ), excluding those cases temporarily or permanent ly redacted, where legally allowed to protect the interests of victims and the accused. An expansion of first amendment rights in 1980’s gave the press increased and slightly unclear access to trialsShow MoreRelatedSocial Constructionism, Positivism and Classicism Essay1826 Words   |  8 Pagesclassicism * positivism * social constructionism The role of theory in contemporary youth justice practice is crucial in shaping and conceptualising relationships between youth and crime. It provides a structure for how youth justice is practiced and helps make sense of today’s issues surrounding the topic. Approaches to youth justice have evolved throughout the centuries and it is important for youth justice practitioners to be aware of the evolution of theory in order to be up to date withRead MoreMass Communication Theory Of George Gerbners Cultivation Theory731 Words   |  3 PagesGeorge Gerbner’s *cultivation theory* a macro-level system theory that examines mass communication by studying institutions, message systems, and cultivation analysis (1967; 1970; Gerbner Gross, 1973; Gerbner et al., 1980; Potter, 2014). Theorized during the â€Å"Age of Television† (Shanahan Morgan, 2004), the theory has been applied to newspapers and other media formats, assuming that media institutions â€Å"cultivate facts, norms and values of society† (Gerbner, 1970; Gerbner Gross, 1976). SpecificallyRead MoreResidential Instability And Mobility, Racial Ethnic Heterogeneity946 Words   |  4 Pagesthis should not be regarded as a direct cause of crime, but as something which ‘fosters institutional disruption, and weakened social controls’ (Sampson et al., 1997: 919) (Sutherland et al. 2013 p. 3). Likewise, it is through that a lack of contact and the loss of trust in neighbours may contribute to criminal behaviour (Sampson et al., 2005). ‘Family disruption’ (lone parents) was added to the list by Sampson (1987) to an illustrative model of crime; this was thought to affect the ability of parentsRead MoreThe Theoretical Utility Of Anthropological, Risk Society And Governmentality Approaches3671 Words   |  15 Pagesand today’s society are the Anthropological approach, the Risk Society approach, and the Governmentality approach. These three contrasting theories are different in the sociological research they have undertaken, their structure and their main focuses. However, all three have a forefront theorist that has produced evidentiary support and a set of sub theories of how different people view ‘risk’ a nd different types of risk. When analysing an event, such as the London suicide bombings in 2005, andRead MoreSocial Harm Is More Advantageous And Useful Over That Of Crime1617 Words   |  7 Pagesconcept of ‘social harm’ hold for the criminologist over that of ‘crime’? The purpose of this essay is to discuss whether a perspective of social harm is more advantageous and useful over that of crime. In order to explore these advantages, this essay will look at the aetiology of crime from a legal perspective; which is arguably very narrow and individualistic in nature. As well as from a perspective of social harm, which is possibly more progressive as it broadens an understanding of ‘crime’ over thatRead MoreThe Effects of Violent Video Games on Society Essay2542 Words   |  11 Pages5,400 acts of violence per month (Smith, Lachlan, Tamborini, 2003). Although these numbers seem impressive, it still only represents the violence depicted in video games and does not include the violence children are exposed to in other forms of media. Studies suggest that by 12 years of age, the average child has witnessed over 100,000 acts of violence just on television alone (Bartholow, Anderson, 2001). Lt. Col. Dave Grossman, author of the book On Killing and Director of the Killology GroupRead MoreNature VS Nurture – Are Criminals Born or Made? Essay2735 Words   |  11 Pages Intro The search for causes of crime forms the basis of most criminological studies. There are numerous explanations for crime: psychological, evolutionary, genetical, sociological, economical and a mix of factors; and many have debated over the primary influence of criminal behaviour—whether criminals are born or made. Truth is, in the constitution of criminal behaviour, it is the amalgam of both nature and nurture. And this paper will present how crime behaviours can be hereditary but areRead MoreThe Relationship between Genetics and Violence Essay1442 Words   |  6 Pageswas seen as a social ill. Before the 1970’s, when genetic research began to take hold, most researchers believed that violence was caused by a number of social aspects. Even with our increased knowledge, there are still groups that view violence as a social ill. This is evident in the fact that there are groups like MAVAV, Mothers against Video Game Addiction and Violence, and Parents against Violence. T hese groups aim to reduce the amount of violence shown in video games and other media, in a hopeRead More Deviant Behavior Essay2079 Words   |  9 Pagesthis essay six types of theories will be discussed about how and why people are deviant. Four of these theories support the idea of deviance being biological and three support the idea of it being caused by your social construction. Also the essay will talk about the differences between the theories and a similarity amongst them as they don’t often agree. There are two main views that people see as to how a person becomes deviant; biologically or from a person’s social construction. The biologicalRead MoreDefinitions Of The Self Essay : Aggressive Criminal Behavior2237 Words   |  9 Pagesview of ‘the embodied self’ with the social constructionist theory. In doing this it will discuss how each approach relates to various aspects of the predisposition between nature and nurture as a binary. It also aims to outline and evaluate how each approach attributes etiologies to aggressive criminal behavior using examples from theorists such as DiLalla and Gottesman (1991) with criminal biology and Kurbin and Weitzer (2003) social disorganization theory. In an attempt to combine the two approaches

Kudler Fine Foods - Functional Area Interrelationships

Kudler Fine Foods – Functional Area Interrelationships Bus/475 July 16, 2012 Kudler Fine Foods Kudler Fine Foods offers delicacy food s to its customers. Kudler treats its foods with love and care. These delicacies give customers excellent meat, bread, seafood, and wine. Kudler’s mission, vision, values, and goals are extraordinary. This paper is a review of Kudler’s reason for existence, organizational structure, steps in collaboration, positive action plan, and collaborative roles of the key stakeholders. Kudler uses these steps to have a successful organization. The organization is successful because customers can get quality foods here. Organization’s Existence Kudler Fine Foods is an upscale specialty food†¦show more content†¦Each employee working for Kudler Fine Foods is in a key position to ensure the company continues its success. Collaboration Process The success of Kudler Fine Foods depends on the implementation of a good business strategy and collaborating among the functional areas to meet the organizational goals. The proof of a successful strategy is the three stores Kudler recently opened. The goal is to implement the company mission and †Go to extensive lengths to assure that Kudler Fine Foods is the purveyor of choice for customers aspiring to purchase the finest epicurean delights† (Kudler Fine Foods, About, 2011, para. 3,). Step 1: The business strategy goals are to capitalize on specialty products and offer products for all incomes. The business strategy is a collaboration of the broad differentiation strategy and focused market niche strategy. The broad differentiation strategy concentrates on â€Å"seeking to differentiate the company s product offering from rivals in ways that will appeal to a broad spectrum of buyers.† The focused market niche strategy principles are diff erentiation and concentrating on a narrow buyer segment that may outcompete rivals by offering niche members customized attributes that meet their tastes and requirements better than rivals products† (Thompson, Gamble, Strickland, 2006, p. 114). Step 2: The complimentary strategic option Kudler Fine Foods will outsource selected value chain activities by creatingShow MoreRelatedFunctional Area Interrelationships1387 Words   |  6 PagesFunctional Area Interrelationships BUS/475 â€Æ' Kudler Fine Foods is food specialty stores where customers can shop and purchase foods and ingredients that are from different places in the world. Kudler Fine Foods prides themselves on the quality for the foods they find and sell. Founded in 1988 Kudler Fine Foods was fulfilling the needs of the customer who is more conscious of the food and products they use daily. As Kudler Fine Foods grow by opening sustaining the stores currently open and theRead MoreFunctional Areas2363 Words   |  10 PagesFunctional Area Interrelationships: Kudler Fine Foods Charles Burt, Megan Engelking, Lou Gamache, Rebecca Lanham, and Julie Lee University of Phoenix BUS 475 July 24, 2011 Phyllis Koch Functional Area Interrelationships This paper is based on the Kudler Fine Foods (KFF) virtual organization scenario presented in University of Phoenix Business 475 course (Apollo Group, Inc., 2009). The following topics will be covered about KFF; the main motivation for the KFF existence from analyzing the

Aristotle s Theory Of Virtue Ethics - 2060 Words

Why does Aristotle think friendship is a good? Is he right? Aristotle outlined a guide to ethics that sought, first and foremost, a degree of applicability that does not falter in its representations of humankind. Perhaps this is the reason that Aristotle plays close attention to one of humankinds most treasured and hard-wearing concepts - friendship. It would be fair to say that friendship has cemented a position as one of the most fundamental constituents that contribute to the phenomenon of daily living. Personal interactions and interpersonal relations can often be observed as â€Å"amongst friends† and it’s often associated kinship has proved a valuable role in team exercises such as many sports may highlight. Friendship plays an integral role in Aristotle’s theory of virtue ethics, an ethical system that emphasizes the importance of a person’s character as opposed to their actions. Aristotle devoted time to this in a number of his works. Perhaps this is most well-pronounced in books 8 and 9 of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and in book 7 of Eudemian ethics. Aristotle believed that a human beings friendship can be divided in to three different categories, friendships of utility, of pleasure and of virtue. If one is to understand the aim of all ethics as a pursuit of human happiness then one may be able to understand why Aristotle views the ideal of friendship as an integral aspect of his theory â€Å"if someone were offered every good thing - wealth, good health, pleasures andShow MoreRelatedAristotle s Theory Of Virtue Ethics1095 Words   |  5 Pageswhole.† ― Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics Ethics is the philosophical study of moral judgements (Solomon: 2010). Moral philosophy has long been dominated by two basic theories; deontology, inspired by Immanuel Kant, the eighteenth century philosopher and; utilitarianism or consequentialism, which derives its modern day instructions from eighteenth and nineteenth century philosophers Jeremey Bentham and J. S. Mills, respectively (Hursthouse:1999). Increasing dissatisfaction with these theories and theirRead MoreAristotles Philosophy on Purpose Essay884 Words   |  4 PagesAristotle, the last of the great Greek philosophers. He roamed Ancient Greece from 384 BC until his death in 323 BC. In this time, he wrote an enormous amount of works, a variety of books from metaphysics to politics and to poetry. His variety is exceptionally impressive. His greatest known works are the Athenian Constitution and Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle’s works of Ethics explore a vast area of topics. He states, â€Å"The goal of the Ethics i s to determine how best to achieve happiness.† In orderRead MoreAnalysis Of Aristotle s The Golden Mean 1109 Words   |  5 PagesPart 3 - Aristotle - The Golden Mean Aristotle was a greek philosopher that taught and stressed many important and revolutionary ideas/philosophies. He was born in 384 BC, and was a student of Plato, as well as founded/ taught at several academies. He wrote on diverse subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, logic, politics, government, and ethics. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge in existence during his time, and he was the founder of many new fields. Aristotle was oneRead MoreRelativism : Cultural Relativism And Individual Relativism843 Words   |  4 Pagesimmoral? Likewise, everyone have to choose upon his or her ethics because there are no absolutes. There are two types of relativism: cultural relativism and individual relativism. Cultural relativism stated that an action is right if that action consistent with the current, collective, cultural, consensus and the prevailing opinion of society. Cultural is the highest standard, and there is even no such thing is human rights if this theory is right. Cultural relativism is sometimes inappropriate inRead MoreCultural Relativism : Moral And Immoral846 Words   |  4 Pagesimmoral? Likewise, everyone have to choose upon his or her ethics because there are no absolutes. There are two types of relativism: cultural relativism and individual relativism. Cultural relativism stated that an action is right if that action consistent with the current, collective, cultural, consensus and the prevailing opinion of society. Cultural is the highest standard, and there is even no such thing is human rights if this theory is right. Cultural relativism is sometimes inappropriate inRead MoreVirtue Ethics : The True Stem Of Moral Character1445 Words   |  6 PagesJiovanni Rodriguez Philosophy 103 2014 December 2nd Virtue Ethics: The True Stem of Moral Character Moral character is what dictates an individual s decision making and affects their experiences throughout their life. A person s morals can be based off one s upbringing and environmental factors. Virtue ethics is a philosophical view that greatly supports this claim that the choices a person makes and their actions follow those choices, and display their moral character. This is more likelyRead MoreAristotle And Marcus Cicero s Perceptions Of Virtue Ethics And The Development Of Economic Society1623 Words   |  7 Pageshimself in society. In this essay, we will examine Plato, Aristotle, Saint Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and Marcus Cicero’s perceptions of what virtue ethics are, and how they facilitated the development of economic society. Morality, distinctly defines what is right and what is wrong, but theory of virtue ethics is the mechanism an individual uses to make those moral decisions. Virtue is essentially having a good moral character. And ethics are a set of rules that influence an individual’s behaviorRead MoreAristotles Impact on Current Society812 Words   |  4 PagesUniversity Aristotle was one of the most important western philosophers. He was a student of Plato and the teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. I found that his biggest impacts on modern society were in the subject areas of ethics, and zoology. Aristotle wrote the first book ever written about ethics titles â€Å"The Nicomachean Ethics,† and it is stillRead MorePlato And Aristotle s Theories Of Utilitarianism And Kantian Ethics1408 Words   |  6 PagesThe ancient theories of Plato and Aristotle differ greatly from the contemporary theories of Utilitarianism and Kantian ethics. Plato and Aristotle focused on the importance of virtue in an individual’s life. Plato believed that purity of the soul was the most important thing in life and can be achieved by mastering the four virtues: justice, wisdom, courage, and moderation. Aristotle believed that the goal of human life was to achieve happiness, which is made possible by the cultivation of a justRead More Aristotle and the Doctrine of the Mean Essay1436 Words   |  6 PagesAristotle and the Doctrine of the Mean Aristotle seeks flourishing happiness in life. He believes that this can be achieved for each individual through the embracement of virtues. Aristotle believes that virtues are the mean of two vices. This is the basis of the Aristotelian â€Å"Doctrine of the Mean†. This paper will explore the basis of the Doctrine of the Mean, its connections to Eudaimonia, and its success or lack thereof. Eudaimonia is a Greek word whose meaning

Road To Teenage Pregnancy Essay Example For Students

Road To Teenage Pregnancy Essay The Road of Teenage Pregnancy As a senior in high school, I had to make a very important decision. Did I want to have a baby and finish school, or did I want to get married and quit school. Although abortion and adoption were the right choice for some people, I knew they were not the right choice for me. Regretfully, I chose to drop out of school, marriage and parenthood. Many teenagers have been faced with the same decision, but how do they know which road is the right one to take? For each person the same choice may not be the right choice. It was not easy being married and a parent at the age of seventeen. We were both too young for the responsibilities we faced. I worked to support us, went to beauty school, and dealt with pregnancy while he finished high school. There were times I felt like all the responsibility had been placed on me, which made me bitter and caused problems with our marriage. I knew our marriage was over by the time our daughter was four years old so we agreed to get a divorce. I found out I was pregnant during our separation and quickly decided that I would not settle on marriage for that reason again. There are times that I feel like I should have tried harder to make things work, but I think we would have been unhappy. I would not want to give my children that kind of life. To this day, I think I made the right decision because our life is good and is getting better everyday. Many positive things have come from my decision such as discovering the things that are most important to me. I want to make a good life and provide my children with the best possible choices. I have also learned that I do not want people to remember me only because I got pregnant in high school and dropped out. These thoughts and feeling have pushed me to get my GED, enroll in college, and to pursue a career in education. I have learned that children are important to me and I want to make a difference in their life. I want my children to know the decisions that they will have to face someday, to know which decisions are the right ones to make, and to know the consequences of the things they may choose to do. I do not think I would have these feelings so strongly if I had chosen a different road. Who knows what I might be doing now? Do the things that have happened mean I .

The Violent Bear It Away

Flannery O’Connor’s The Violent Bear It Away is a humorous gothic novel that was published in 1960. The title of the novel is derived from the book of Mathew 11:12 in the bible, where John the Baptist quotes â€Å"the kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, and the violent bear it away†. The novel focuses on Francis Tarwater, a teenage boy who is also the protagonist. He is caught up between two lifestyles, and has a hard time deciding which path to take.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Violent Bear It Away specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The story begins with the death of his great-uncle, Mason Tarwater who raised him with Christian values, preparing him to be a prophet. On the other hand, Rayber, his uncle tries to make him forget his religious values, reforming him into a secular lifestyle. However, Francis Tarwater tries to run from his destiny, but every time he is involved in secular ism, he is reminded of his Christian upbringing, which brings him into finally accepting his destiny. In the book, O’Connor links the importance of passion with religion. Francis is the passionate figure in the novel while his uncle Rayber who is the antagonist is seen trying to suppress it. As a result, Francis who prefers going by the name Tarwater is redeemed while his uncle is destroyed. Even though he doesn’t fit to be considered a hero, everything that Tarwater does is out of passion. Tarwater seems to have his own idea of what a prophet should be and for this, he is rebellious and reluctant to fulfill Mason’s death wishes. Burning Mason by setting the house they lived in with him inside is surely an act of passion; it shows how determined he is to live his past (O’Connor 7). Passion is of great significance in this book as it shows the challenges Christians face in a secularized world. Also, as the title of the book suggests, violent is what Christ ians have to bear to remain righteous and truthful to their mission. Basically, religion is linked to violence, and therefore, the faithful have to go through tough experiences in order to attain the kingdom of heaven. Mason represents the religion and Christianity while Rayber on the other hand, represent secularism. For this, Tarwater is caught in the middle as the two sides try to win him over. Even though Rayber and Mason seem to be the cause of conflict due to their representation of good and evil, Bishop is arguably the cause of the conflict. It is his salvation that Mason and Rayber fight about, while Tarwater is the prophet that brings the salvation. This is explored through a flashback when Tarwater recalls his great-uncles telling him that Bishop is a product of his parent’s evil act, and must be baptized to be saved (O’Connor 47). Rayber is the central character in the second section of the book where he keeps conflicting Tarwater in his journey of spiritual self-discovery. He is in denial as he refuses to be reformed by his uncles into the secular world; he is caught up in a middle of two worlds and he doesn’t know where he belongs. Having been kidnapped by Mason when he was an infant, he was denied the opportunity to experience secularism, and therefore, all he has known is the Christians ways that he fiercely runs from. Mason has taught him well and he trusts him with the responsibilities he leaves him before the time of his death. Tarwater is a free-spirited young man, and only do as his guts tells him; unfortunately, there is a voice that runs in his head when he is about to make decisions that influences him to do the opposite of what he is expect to do.Advertising Looking for essay on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The author characterizes the voice as Satan. As young as he is, Tarwater acts with passion as he follows his instincts and does as his mind tells him to. The death of Mason in the beginning of the novel marks the independence of Tarwater as he gets to decide the direction his future takes; however, it is clearly seen that his destiny was set, and that he has no choice other than to follow the path meant for him (O’Connor and Zaafirah 73). Tarwater’s moment of revelation was when he escaped from the city after baptizing/drowning Bishop, and after returning to his home he is surprised to see that his great-uncle’s corpse was not burnt as he thought. On the contrary, he received a religious burial as he always wished; it is at this point that he realized that he had accomplished his great-uncle’s wishes which are, baptizing Bishop and giving him a religious burial that included placing a cross on his grave. On the other hand, Rayber’s moments of revelation came when Tarwater drowned Bishop and to his surprise, he never felt anything, and at that moment he realized that he didnâ⠂¬â„¢t love his son. This makes him question the things he believed in, and starts to think that maybe his uncle was right after all. The arson in the beginning of the book, baptism and the sodomic rape in the final chapter are the startling incidents that tried to draw Tarwater away from his religious fanatic ways. Moreover, instead of pushing him to the secular world, each incident is seen to draw him to his destiny. By setting Mason’s house on fire, Tarwater wanted to prove that he was not a prophet, but after returning to mason’s shack, he was amazed to discover that he didn’t burn his great-uncle as he anticipated; instead, Buford had taken Mason’s body and gave him a descent burial as he had requested. Tarwater never meant to baptize Bishop but by drowning him, he realized that he had also baptized him, fulfilling his great-uncle’s wish. The sodomic rape was an incident that opened Tarwater’s eyes as it made him realize where he belong ed. The rapist is a physical actualization of the devil, and through his action, Tarwater is redeemed (O’Connor and Zaafirah 193). He realized that he will never escape his destiny, and that it was the high time he lived the life that was meant for him. With a history of writing novels with uncompromising religious messages, O’Connor uses Tarwater to show the dominance that religious fanaticism has over secularism. It is for this reason that the author explores the concept of good versus evil.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Violent Bear It Away specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Having been written from a religious standpoint, the book is not meant to meek secularism; instead, it is a plea for religious moderation. Therefore, the book is suitable for all readers, and not just religious people. O’Connor’s use of the southern gothic literal style, makes the story more humorous, comme ntary and mysterious. Works Cited O’Connor, Flannery, and Zaafirah, Elbey. Flannery O’connor Complete Stories. S.l.: Zaafirah El Bey, 2009. Print. O’Connor, Flannery. The Violent Bear It Away. New York: Farrar, Straus Giroux, 2007. Print. This essay on The Violent Bear It Away was written and submitted by user Annie Newman to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Networking and Telecommunication Management essays

Networking and Telecommunication Management essays Networking and Telecommunication Management The AT. The above incidents are described in Bruce Sterlings book The Hacker Crackdown, Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier, copyrighted in 1992. Bruce Sterling authored this book which seeks to explain the people of cyberspace. Bruce Sterling digs into the bizarre world of electronic communications. The world of electronic communication or cyberspace has no physical location, because it exists only in the network. Cyberspace is not normal space; it is the space on your computers. Mr. Sterling writes about electronic communication in the early 90s between computers and telephone lines. The space that Mr. Sterling speaks of is about 130 years old. The current cyberspace is where a telephone conversation occurs. You may think you are conversing into a phone line, the device in your hand against your ear. No, not really, but its the place between the phones, yes, the indefinite space out there. Sterling attempts to inform, compel and appall his readers, the hackers, law officers and civil libertarians. In the 1990, a nationwide legal battle took place against computer hackers, yes criminal charges all across the United States. The Secret Service, telephone company security and state and local law enforcement agencies across the country joined to bring down the U. S. underground electronic coup. While the underground and legal computer community fought strongly against the same agencies who threaten their electronic civil liberties. Mr....

Biography of Tamerlane, 14th Conqueror of Asia

Biography of Tamerlane, 14th Conqueror of Asia Tamerlane (April 8, 1336–February 18, 1405) was the ferocious and terrifying founder of the Timurid empire of Central Asia, eventually ruling much of Europe and Asia. Throughout history, few names have inspired such terror as his. Tamerlane was not the conquerors actual name, though. More properly, he is known as Timur, from the Turkic word for iron. Fast Facts: Tamerlane or Timur Known For: Founder of the Timurid Empire (1370–1405), ruled from Russia to India, and from the Mediterranean Sea to Mongolia.Birth: April 8, 1336 in Kesh, Transoxiana (present-day Uzbekistan)Parents: Taraghai Bahdur and Tegina BegimDied: February 18, 1405 at Otrar, in KazakhstanSpouse(s): Aljai Turkanaga (m. about 1356, d. 1370), Saray Mulk (m. 1370), dozens of other wives and concubinesChildren: Timur had dozens of children, those who ruled his empire after his death include Pir Muhammad Jahangir (1374–1407, ruled 1405–1407), Shahrukh Mirza (1377–1447, r. 1407–1447), and Ulegh Beg (1393–1449, r. 1447–1449). Amir Timur is remembered as a vicious conqueror, who razed ancient cities to the ground and put entire populations to the sword. On the other hand, he is also known as a great patron of the arts, literature, and architecture. One of his signature achievements is his capital in the city of Samarkand, located in modern-day Uzbekistan. A complicated man, Timur continues to fascinate us some six centuries after his death. Early Life Timur was born on April 8, 1336, near the city of Kesh (now called Shahrisabz), about 50 miles south of the oasis of Samarkand, in Transoxiana.  The childs father Taraghai Bahdur was the chief of the Barlas tribe; Timurs mother was Tegina Begim. The Barlas were of mixed Mongolian and Turkic ancestry, descended from the hordes of Genghis Khan and the earlier inhabitants of Transoxiana. Unlike their nomadic ancestors, the Barlas were settled agriculturalists and traders. Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Arabshahs 14th-century biography, Tamerlane or Timur: The Great Amir, states that Timur was descended from Genghis Khan on his mothers side; it is not entirely clear whether that is true. Many of the details of Tamerlanes early life are from a spate of manuscripts, dozens of heroic tales written from the early 18th through 20th centuries, and stored in archives across Central Asia, Russia, and Europe. In his book The Legendary Biographies of Tamerlane, historian Ron Sela has argued that they were based on ancient manuscripts but serve as a manifest against the corruption of rulers and officials, a call to respect Islamic traditions, and an attempt to situate Central Asia within a greater geopolitical and religious sphere.   The tales are full of adventures and mysterious happenings and prophecies. According to those tales, Timur raised in the city of Bukhara, where he met and married his first wife Aljai Turkanaga. She died about 1370, after which he married several of the daughters of Amir Husayn Qara’unas, a rival leader, including Saray Mulk.  Timur eventually collected dozens of women as wives and concubines as he conquered their fathers or erstwhile husbands lands. Disputed Causes of Timurs Lameness The European versions of Timurs name- Tamerlane or Tamberlane- are based on the Turkic nickname Timur-i-leng, meaning Timur the Lame.  Timurs body was exhumed by a Russian team led by archaeologist Mikhail Gerasimov in 1941, and they found evidence of two healed wounds on Timurs right leg. His right hand was also missing two fingers. The anti-Timurid author Arabshah says that Timur was shot with an arrow while stealing sheep. More likely, he was wounded in 1363 or 1364 while fighting as a mercenary for Sistan (southeastern Persia) as stated by contemporary chroniclers Ruy Clavijo and Sharaf al-Din Ali Yazdi. Transoxianas Political Situation During Timurs youth, Transoxiana was riven by conflict between the local nomadic clans and the sedentary Chagatay Mongol khans who ruled them. The Chagatay had abandoned the mobile ways of Genghis Khan and their other ancestors  and taxed the people heavily in order to support their urban lifestyle. Naturally, this taxation angered their citizens. In 1347, a local named Kazgan seized power from the Chagatai ruler Borolday. Kazgan would rule until his assassination in 1358. After Kazgans death, various warlords and religious leaders vied for power. Tughluk Timur, a Mongol warlord, emerged victorious in 1360. Young Timur Gains and Loses Power Timurs uncle Hajji Beg led the Barlas at this time  but refused to submit to Tughluk Timur. The Hajji fled, and the new Mongol ruler decided to install the seemingly more pliable young Timur to rule in his stead. In fact, Timur was already plotting against the Mongols. He formed an alliance with the grandson of Kazgan, Amir Hussein, and married Husseins sister Aljai Turkanaga. The Mongols soon caught on; Timur and Hussein were dethroned and forced to turn to banditry in order to survive. In 1362, the legend says, Timurs following was reduced to two: Aljai and one other. They were even imprisoned in Persia for two months. Timurs Conquests Begin Timurs bravery and tactical skill made him a successful mercenary soldier in Persia, and he soon collected a large following. In 1364, Timur and Hussein banded together again and defeated Ilyas Khoja, the son of Tughluk Timur. By 1366, the two warlords controlled Transoxiana. Timurs first wife died in 1370, freeing him to attack his erstwhile ally Hussein. Hussein was besieged and killed at Balkh, and Timur declared himself the sovereign of the whole region. Timur was not directly descended from Genghis Khan on his fathers side, so he ruled as an amir  (from the Arabic word for prince), rather than as khan.  Over the next decade, Timur seized the rest of Central Asia as well. Timurs Empire Expands With Central Asia in hand, Timur invaded Russia in 1380. He helped the Mongol Khan Toktamysh retake control and also defeated the Lithuanians in battle. Timur captured Herat (now in Afghanistan) in 1383, the opening salvo against Persia. By 1385, all of Persia was his.   With invasions in 1391 and 1395, Timur fought against his former protege in Russia, Toktamysh. The Timurid army captured Moscow in 1395.  While Timur was busy in the north, Persia revolted. He responded by leveling entire cities  and using the citizens skulls to build grisly towers and pyramids. By 1396, Timur had also conquered Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Georgia. Conquest of India, Syria, and Turkey Timurs army of 90,000 crossed the Indus River in September  1398 and set upon India. The country had fallen to pieces after the death of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq (r. 1351–1388) of the Delhi Sultanate, and by this time Bengal, Kashmir, and the Deccan each had separate rulers. The Turkic/Mongol invaders left carnage along their path; Delhis army was destroyed in December and the city was ruined. Timur seized tons of treasure and 90 war elephants  and took them back to Samarkand. Timur looked west in 1399, retaking Azerbaijan and conquering Syria. Baghdad was destroyed in 1401 and 20,000 of its people were slaughtered. In July 1402, Timur captured early Ottoman Turkey and received the submission of Egypt. Final Campaign and Death The rulers of Europe were glad that the Ottoman Turk sultan Bayazid had been defeated, but they trembled at the idea that Tamerlane was at their doorstep. The rulers of Spain, France, and other powers sent congratulatory embassies to Timur, hoping to stave off an attack. Timur had bigger goals, though. He decided in 1404 that he would conquer Ming China. (The ethnic-Han Ming Dynasty had overthrown his cousins, the Yuan, in 1368.) Unfortunately for him, however, the Timurid army set out in December during an unusually cold winter. Men and horses died of exposure, and the 68-year-old Timur fell ill. He died on February 17, 1405 at Otrar, in Kazakhstan. Legacy Timur started life as the son of a minor chieftain, much like his putative ancestor Genghis Khan. Through sheer intelligence, military skill, and force of personality, Timur was able to conquer an empire stretching from Russia to India and from the Mediterranean Sea to Mongolia. Unlike Genghis Khan, however, Timur conquered not to open trade routes and protect his flanks, but to loot and pillage. The Timurid Empire did not long survive its founder  because he rarely bothered to put any governmental structure in place after he destroyed the existing order. While Timur professed to be a good Muslim, he obviously felt no compunction about destroying the jewel-cities of Islam and slaughtering their inhabitants. Damascus, Khiva, Baghdad...these ancient capitals of Islamic learning never really recovered from Timurs attentions. His intent seems to have been to make his capital at Samarkand the first city in the Islamic world. Contemporary sources say that Timurs forces killed about 19 million people during their conquests. That number is probably exaggerated, but Timur does seem to have enjoyed massacre for its own sake. Timurs Descendants Despite a death-bed warning from the conqueror, his dozens of sons and grandsons immediately began to fight over the throne when he passed away. The most successful Timurid ruler, Timurs grandson Ulegh Beg (1393–1449, ruled 1447–1449), gained fame as an astronomer and scholar. Ulegh was not a good administrator, however, and was murdered by his own son in 1449. Timurs line had better luck in India, where his great-great-grandson Babur founded the Mughal Dynasty in 1526. The Mughals ruled until 1857 when the British expelled them. (Shah Jahan, the builder of the Taj Mahal, is thus also a descendant of Timur.) Timurs Reputation Timur was lionized in the west for his defeat of the Ottoman Turks. Christopher Marlowes Tamburlaine the Great and Edgar Allen Poes Tamerlane are good examples. Not surprisingly, the people of Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East remember him rather less favorably. In post-Soviet Uzbekistan, Timur has been made into a national folk hero. The people of Uzbek cities like Khiva, however, are skeptical; they remember that he razed their city and killed nearly every inhabitant. Sources Gonzlez de Clavijo, Ruy. Narrative of the Embassy of Ruy Gonzalez De Clavijo to the Court of Timour, at Samarcand, A.D. 1403–1406. Trans. Markham, Clements R. London: The Hakluyt Society, 1859.Marozzi, Justin. Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World. New York: HarperCollins, 2006.Sela, Ron. The Legendary Biographies of Tamerlane: Islam and Heroic Apocrypha in Central Asia. Trans. Markham, Clements R.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.  Saunders, J. J. History of the Mongol Conquests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971.